The Timeline of African American Music explores the evolution of African American musical genres spanning the past 400 years.

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Rhythm and blues is a form of Black dance music that has its origins in the post-World War II era (1939–1945); the term itself is attributed to Jerry Wexler, a writer for Billboard, who coined it in 1949 for the magazine’s Black music chart to replace the term “Race Music” (a term in use since 1920). Rhythm and blues performers encompass hybrid jazz/blues combos, trios, and vocal harmony groups to blues shouters and gospel-inflected solo singers.

Rhythm and Blues is a by-product of the World War II migration of southern Blacks to major urban centers in the North and on the East and West Coasts. An estimated five million African Americans abandoned their jobs as sharecroppers, tenant farmers, domestics, and general laborers, anticipating better economic and educational opportunities and an escape from racial oppression. They found high-paying jobs in wartime industries, but discriminatory housing practices led to the growth of segregated urban communities. African Americans established a dynamic entertainment district in every major city where they settled, transforming rural traditions into urban forms of expression. These vibrant styles captured the spirit, pulse, and tempo of the city, and often incorporated new technologies such as electric instruments and amplification.CombosWorking together in cities, blues singers and jazz musicians created a new musical genre–rhythm and blues. Former swing band members reduced the 12–16-member ensemble to a seven- or eight-piece group consisting of rhythm section, alto and tenor sax, and trumpet. Jazz musician Louis Jordan and His Tympany Five (that featured Jordan on vocals) provided the model for this rhythm and blues combo style heard in <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:271,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Caldonia&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1434911575&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Caldonia (Single Version)&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Louis Jordan &amp; His Tympany Five&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Let the Good Times Roll: The Anthology 1938 - 1953&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1999-02-23&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music118\/v4\/cd\/4f\/0e\/cd4f0e81-87f2-3b39-a71b-53a568577d12\/00602567847946.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;004f63&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;e1e3e0&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;ccd9d7&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;b4c6c7&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;a3bdc0&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/41\/27\/4b\/41274b73-6b92-6753-d0e1-a9279d7a31f2\/mzaf_10982418095020677915.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Caldonia”</a> (1945). These combos, popular from the1940s through the early-1950s, retained the boogie-woogie foundation, the shuffle beat, and the riffing horn patterns from swing. Notable instrumental combos include those led by saxophonists Paul Williams, Big Jay McNeely, Harold Singer, and Wild Bill Moore. The rockin’ style of instrumental combos, heard in “The Deacon’s Hop” (1948) by Big Jay McNeely and “We’re Gonna Rock, We’re Gonna Roll” (1948) by Wild Bill Moore established the foundation for “rock ‘n’ roll.” Rhythm and blues combos often featured blues singers such as Wynonie Harris, Mabel Scott, Amos Milburn, and Big Joe Turner, who moaned and shouted the blues in ways that reflected a range of feelings and emotions. The vocals of Etta James, Dinah Washington, Ruth Brown (<a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:281,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Mama He Treats Your Daughter Mean&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;42031919&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Mama He Treats Your Daughter Mean&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Ruth Brown&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The Essentials: Ruth Brown&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1953-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is3-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music124\/v4\/7b\/7f\/9d\/7b7f9d67-3706-387a-fc7b-c33e62f15c49\/s06.nudzdsdj.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1421,&quot;height&quot;:1405,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;ffffff&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;39312a&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;333333&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;605a55&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/be\/1c\/e7\/be1ce776-8c7f-e8a3-b076-a6c844a39bbc\/mzaf_6373269600425482702.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Mama He Treats Your Daughter Mean,”</a> 1953) and LaVern Baker often conveyed a gospel flavor.

TriosJazz pianist Nat “King” Cole pioneered the trio style, consisting of piano/organ, bass, and guitar. Performed in small clubs and hotel lounges, this music provided a background for conversations, although patrons in African American clubs danced as well. Trios later added drums and other percussion. In addition to Cole, the trio style was popularized by Johnny Moore’s Three Blazers, pianists Charles Brown, Ivory Joe Hunter McDuff, Shirley Scott, Jimmy McGriff, and Richard “Groove” Holmes. Individual trios had signature styles that mirrored their training in jazz, pop and/or blues, as heard in <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/21/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:272,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Straighten Up and Fly Right&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;724184735&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Straighten Up and Fly Right&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Nat \&quot;King\&quot; Cole&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The World of Nat King Cole&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1943-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is4-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music114\/v4\/24\/93\/4a\/24934ade-1983-eeb6-2b80-665ab0ced37c\/00724356343450.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;aec68f&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;ccb787&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;8b9e72&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;a3926c&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/51\/fa\/80\/51fa804f-1821-359c-5422-c43fb690fd10\/mzaf_16745284718070793998.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“Straighten Up and Fly Right”</a> (1943) by Nat “King” Cole and <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/21/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:273,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Drifting Blues&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;435326385&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Drifting Blues (Digitally Remastered)&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Johnny Moore&#039;s Three Blazers&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Drifting Blues (Digitally Remastered) - Single&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1992-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is4-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music\/cb\/21\/17\/mzi.mrdvhmoq.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:800,&quot;height&quot;:800,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;fbfbfb&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;411140&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;323232&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;664065&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview62\/v4\/73\/32\/23\/733223a4-c72b-3612-f5b9-bb26f41c20df\/mzaf_8747343989254722008.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“Drifting Blues”</a> (1946) by Johnny Moore’s Three Blazers featuring Charles Brown.

Member of the Orioles

Vocal Harmony GroupsVocal harmony groups performed in the 1930s and ’40s with jazz bands and as independent groups. Pioneers like the Mills Brothers (<a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/genres/21/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:274,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Paper Doll&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1443999594&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Paper Doll&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Mills Brothers&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;20th Century Masters - The Millennium Collection: The Best of the Mills Brothers&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1942-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is2-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music128\/v4\/f5\/f8\/17\/f5f817b5-2d15-fde2-7169-a23b5e4dfbfc\/00602517233188.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1008,&quot;height&quot;:900,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;e2d6c6&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;000002&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;3c2b1e&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;2d2b29&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;5d4d40&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/92\/d8\/c0\/92d8c04d-09e2-b1ec-c0d8-67e27129ace7\/mzaf_11834956812990038224.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“Paper Doll,”</a> 1942), Delta Rhythm Boys (“Certainly Lord,” 1953), Ink Spots, and the Charioteers featured smooth harmonies based on barbershop, jazz, and sacred music. These groups, as well as the Ravens (“Old Man River,” 1947), established the model for the 1950s teenage a cappella groups that popularized the vocal harmony style on inner city street corners and the stoops of crowded apartment buildings as well as in parks and school gyms. Many of these “bird” groups (e.g., Swallows, Penguins, etc.), sang in a romantic style emulating the Orioles (“It’s Too Soon to Know,” 1948), who began recording in the late 1940s. Although they primarily sang a cappella, producers added sparse instrumentation, including guitar and drums played with brushes, to their commercial recordings. The Spaniels and the Moonglows added a rhythmic foundation to the “romantic” vocal group style. The bass voice imitated the string bass, singing nonsense phrases like “doo-doo-wop.” “Sincerely” (1954) by the Moonglows illustrates this “doo-wop” style—a style later defined as rock ‘n’ roll.Rhythm and Blues in the Mainstream: Uptown R&amp;BIn the mid-1950s, record labels began producing rhythm and blues music for consumption beyond African American communities (referred to as Uptown R&amp;B). Targeting mainstream audiences, producers applied crossover formulas to the productions of vocal harmony groups. They, for example, replaced rhythm and blues elements with familiar pop production formulas: sing-along refrains replaced call-and-response structures; “pop” vocal harmonies substituted for those associated with the blues and gospel traditions; orchestral arrangements (strings, marimba, tympani, and percussion) replaced rhythm and blues combos; and Latin-flavored rhythms, especially the “cha-cha” beat, substituted for swing rhythms and heavy backbeats on 2 and 4. Examples include “Only You” (1955) by the Platters and <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/genres/21/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:275,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;There Goes My Baby&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;340891830&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;There Goes My Baby&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Drifters&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The Essentials: The Drifters&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1956-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is3-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music\/91\/a2\/b1\/mzi.lnmqvltg.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1421,&quot;height&quot;:1401,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;e1e1e1&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;ef7188&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;b4b4b4&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;bf5b6d&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview122\/v4\/d9\/5a\/d9\/d95ad919-a53f-1216-80a8-6956c1db57fc\/mzaf_14150469700751742409.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“There Goes My Baby”</a> (1959) by the Drifters. Artists also recorded pop standards known as Tin Pan Alley songs written by professional songwriters hired by music publishers beginning in the early 20th century. They wrote ballads, novelty songs, vaudeville and dance songs, among other styles. Some of the most frequently recorded pop standards include “Over the Rainbow,” “Stormy Weather,” “Summertime,” “Georgia On My Mind,” and “At Last.”

Even though rhythm and blues acquired musical elements from pop for mainstream acceptance and marketed under the rock ‘n’ roll label, record labels continued to produce the jazz-blues combo styled rhythm and blues for African American communities. Songs such as Ray Charles’s “Hit the Road Jack” (1962) and “You Don’t Know Me By Now” (1962), Rufus Thomas’s <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/genres/21/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:51,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Walking the Dog&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;41098241&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Walking the Dog&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Rufus Thomas&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Walking the Dog&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1963-09-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music115\/v4\/20\/00\/7f\/20007fff-5e52-e6c3-dfdc-46754887a4a4\/s06.syhipcee.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;f8f6f7&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;40201e&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;182c47&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;654b49&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;45546a&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview112\/v4\/66\/f8\/50\/66f850b9-d93f-23e7-5c8b-eaeb07bb69b6\/mzaf_8266131897473787196.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“Walking the Dog”</a> (1963), Ike and Tina Turner’s “You Can’t Miss Nothing That You Never Had” (1964), Etta James’s “Something’s Got a Hold of Me” (1962) and James Brown’s “Prisoner of Love” (1963), remained popular among African Americans, especially in the South. They also continued producing hits that made the Billboard rhythm and blues charts. In the mid-1960s, the combo style transformed into a new sound labeled “soul.”

Motown Songwriter-Producer

The New Sounds of Young AmericaBy the mid-1950s, songwriters in their late-teens and early twenties were writing hit songs that mirrored their youthful experiences and fantasies. All female groups (“girl groups”) joined their male counterparts recording these songs. The Chantels’ <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:276,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Maybe&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;118152023&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Maybe (LP Version)&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Chantels&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The Best of the Chantels&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1957-11-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is4-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music124\/v4\/13\/79\/4d\/13794d1a-cea2-f97c-a0d6-719e5ab3f8ec\/mzi.tekjmlje.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;faefd1&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;0d0907&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;5b1f1d&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;3c372f&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;7b4941&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview122\/v4\/22\/73\/10\/227310fe-d5d5-d29f-f761-0a0aa3ad80a1\/mzaf_16170655102409895879.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Maybe”</a> (1957), The Shirelles’ “Will You Love Me Tomorrow” (1960), The Crystals’ “He’s a Rebel ” (1962), and The Ronettes’ “Be My Baby” (1963) were among the popular girl groups that inspired the formation of teenage girl groups who later signed with Motown Records. The Miracles’ “Shop Around” (1960), The Marvelettes’ “Please Mr. Postman” (1961), Martha and the Vandellas’ <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:277,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Heatwave&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1444017336&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;(Love Is Like a) Heat Wave&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Martha Reeves &amp; The Vandellas&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Heat Wave&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1963-07-09&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is2-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music128\/v4\/af\/c8\/b4\/afc8b4fe-794e-8870-3b32-b5f932cab872\/00602537424818.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;680c1f&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;f6f7f9&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;f5f1dd&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;dac8cd&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;d8c4b7&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/4e\/fd\/be\/4efdbe47-cabb-2cd3-1b35-4327917d8719\/mzaf_16906231279477484072.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Heatwave”</a> (1963), The Supremes’ <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:278,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Where Did Our Love Go&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1443150931&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Where Did Our Love Go&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Supremes&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Where Did Our Love Go&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1964-08-31&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is3-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music124\/v4\/3e\/bc\/60\/3ebc6057-595e-fb88-e6d6-7a45937070f0\/14UMGIM62198.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:2984,&quot;height&quot;:2984,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;1a4227&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;d3e692&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;c7e373&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;aec57c&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;a5c364&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview112\/v4\/3b\/33\/c7\/3b33c7ef-ff4a-0e6e-72b6-af7216103b63\/mzaf_743833856003739218.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Where Did Our Love Go”</a> (1964), and their male counterparts, The Temptations’ “The Way You Do the Things You Do” (1964) became the next generation of teenaged groups. They represented Motown’s “Sound of Young America.”

The rhythm and blues combo style is rooted in the blues and jazz traditions. The up-tempo style known as “jump blues” is characterized by a 12-bar blues structure, boogie-woogie bass line, shuffle rhythms (triplet quarter note followed by a triplet eighth note), syncopated horn riffs, solo alto saxophone, and group singing on refrain lines. The lead singers of the first rhythm and blues vocal harmony groups, known as “romantic” groups, sang in a lyrical and smooth style that employed phrasing, shading, and timing techniques closely aligned with those of jubilee quartets. Doo-wop groups added rhythmic movements when the bass voice began imitating the “walking” string bass associated with jazz. The addition of orchestral arrangements, sing-along choruses, and Latin rhythms to rhythm and blues made this sound more compatible with the musical tastes of mainstream American adults. The producers for Motown added these pop production elements over a rhythm and blues foundation and incorporated the lyrics of young professional songwriters to produce the crossover Motown’s “Sound of Young America.”

One branch of rhythm and blues lyrics derive from everyday experiences and relationships of adults; they often satirized daily life, illustrated in song titles such as “What’s the Use of Getting’ Sober (When You Gonna Get Drunk Again)” (1942), “R.M. Blues (1946),” “Old Maid Boogie (1947),” <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:280,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Good Rockin\u2019 Tonight&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;203701480&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Good Rockin\u2019 Tonight&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Wynonie Harris&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;More Greatest Hits: Good Rockin&#039; Tonight&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;2004-09-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music\/0c\/6b\/4d\/mzi.vbroajka.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:722,&quot;height&quot;:727,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;005999&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;fbfeff&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;f2d4be&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;c8ddea&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;c1bcb6&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/69\/09\/3c\/69093cd8-3073-ebd1-2cda-d2916a099f47\/mzaf_10314354140527362819.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Good Rockin’ Tonight”</a> (1948), and “Elevator Boogie” (1948). Many of these songs employ double entendre, a linguistic device that masked sexual innuendo. Novelty lyrics are common in rhythm and blues and provided humorous commentaries on everyday events in Black life, as found in “Beans and Cornbread” (1949), “Ain’t Nobody Here but Us Chickens (1946)” and “Saturday Night Fish Fry” (1949). Relationship songs, especially about romance, are common, for example <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:275,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;There Goes My Baby&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;340891830&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;There Goes My Baby&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Drifters&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The Essentials: The Drifters&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1956-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is3-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music\/91\/a2\/b1\/mzi.lnmqvltg.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1421,&quot;height&quot;:1401,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;e1e1e1&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;ef7188&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;b4b4b4&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;bf5b6d&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview122\/v4\/d9\/5a\/d9\/d95ad919-a53f-1216-80a8-6956c1db57fc\/mzaf_14150469700751742409.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“There Goes My Baby”</a> (1959), “This Magic Moment” (1960), and “All I Could Do Was Cry” (1960).The other branch of lyrics mirrors the worldviews, experiences, relationships, and fantasies of teenagers. Songs like “Searching” (1957), “Dedicated to the One I Love” (1961), “Do You Love Me” (1963) and “Dancing in the Streets” (1964).

Freedom Songs

Rhythm & Blues

Hard Bop

Swing Bands

Gospel Quartet

The Way You Do the Things You Do

Rock ‘n’ Roll

Soul

Disco

Rural/Folk Blues

Bass

Drums

Guitar

Organ

Piano

Saxophone

Strings

Trombone

Trumpet

Syncopation

Arrangement

Ensemble

Blues Form

Vocals

Verse/Refrain

Harmony

Rhythms

Louis Jordan

Johnny Otis

Wynonie Harris

Etta James

Nat “King” Cole

Johnny Moore’s Three Blazers

The Mills Brothers

The Delta Rhythm Boys

The Ravens

The Platters

The Drifters

The Chantels

The Shirelles

The Supremes

The Temptations

Ruth Brown

Caldonia (Single Version)

Caldonia

Straighten Up and Fly Right

Drifting Blues (Digitally Remastered)

Drifting Blues

Paper Doll

There Goes My Baby

Maybe (LP Version)

Maybe

(Love Is Like a) Heat Wave

Heatwave

Where Did Our Love Go

Only You (And You Alone)

Only You

Good Rockin’ Tonight

Mama He Treats Your Daughter Mean

Racism/Discrimination

Dance

Love/Relationships

Social Consciousness

Migration

Daily Life

Entertainment

Secular

Soul is a gospel-influenced African American popular music style that evolved out of rhythm and blues in urban areas beginning in the late 1950s. Its passionate vocalizing, powerful rhythms, and honest lyrics spoke directly to a generation of young African Americans, and soul music became synonymous with the social and political developments affecting them. Soul became popular as a distinctive style during the 1960s and peaked in popularity in the mid-1970s. Its rise paralleled that of <a href="/stories/revolutionary-concepts-in-african-american-music" rel="noopener noreferrer">the Civil Rights and the Black Power movements</a>, acting as the “soundtrack” for the ascension of Black pride during these years—the music can’t be separated from the prevailing mood at the time, and vice versa.

As the momentum of the 1950s Civil Rights movement continued to build in the 1960s, Black college students rejected the nonviolent and integrationist approach advocated by civil rights leaders. In 1966 as an alternative, they embraced the Black nationalist ideology of Malcolm X. Under the rubric of Black Power and led by Kwame Ture (A.K.A. Stokley Carmichael) proponents of this ideology promoted national Black unity, Black pride, and self-determination. Their activism grew into a political movement to which Black people assigned social and cultural meanings described as “soul.” The term became associated with a range of Black cultural productions such as music, dance, visual art, foodways, fashion, natural hairstyles, a nonverbal communication style, and a unique language style of inner-city street talk and slang. With its roots in gospel music and the broader Black church culture, soul music captured the spirit, emotions, and chaos of the 1960s civil unrest that continued into the early 1970s.The soul sound began to take shape during the 1950s, the beginning of the modern Civil Rights movement. Pioneers Ray Charles and James Brown, followed by Brown, Sam Cooke, and Curtis Mayfield in the 1960s, tapped into the gospel music tradition to give a new voice to a people struggling for their rights as first-class citizens. They borrowed the rhythms, musical structures, vocal and instrumental style, and emotional delivery of gospel music and transformed rhythm and blues into soul. Ray Charles took this a step further by turning the spiritual song “This Little Light of Mine” into a soul song “This Little Girl of Mine” (1955). His reinterpretation of the 1952 rhythm and blues hit “Drown in My Own Tears”(1956), written as “I’ll Drown in My Tears” by Sonny Thompson and Lula Reed, introduced the gospel rhythms of the 12/8 meter, call-and-response structures, gospel harmonic progression, vocal phrasings, and improvisatory style.James Brown favored an intense, percussive, and gospel-inflected vocal sound similar to that of Black preachers he had observed in his youth. Brown’s dynamic persona lent a tension and excitement to his music, evident in the midtempo ballad “Please, Please, Please” (1956) with its repetitive, drawn-out choruses.

In the mid-1960s, Sam Cooke introduced the silky smooth, laid-back, melismatic vocal style associated with the gospel quartet the Soul Stirrers. Cooke was featured as lead singer and grafted that style onto rhythm and blues when he left the group for a secular solo career. His early recording of “You Send Me” (1957) was a precursor of the soul sound. By the mid-1960s, Brown evolved a distinctive soul sound that earned him the title “The Godfather of Soul.” He increased the intensity of his performance by adding a polyrhythmic foundation and incorporating vocal screams and hollers into his singing. His album Live at the Apollo, recorded in 1962, gave listeners a taste of the frenetic excitement Brown could generate and his fans’ dramatic reactions; some consider it the greatest live album ever recorded by any artist. Brown’s hit single “I Got You (I Feel Good)” (1965) is also one of the most thrilling classic soul recordings. Brown’s impassioned musical sound paralleled the emergence of the Black Power movement that promoted self-sufficiency, community control, and economic and political empowerment. Its leaders inspired unity, racial pride, and identification with the motherland of Africa among African Americans. Soul embodied this spirit as well as its sense of urgency to achieve these goals. The combination of soul’s social and political messages with its sheer musical power encouraged various levels of activism among African Americans and the nation as a whole.

The soul sound encompasses many different vocal styles and timbres. It ranged from the more lyrical and tempered style of Curtis Mayfield and the Impressions, and Al Green, to the gospel-folk style of the Staple Singers to the percussive and shouting approach of James Brown, Otis Redding, Aretha Franklin, Wilson Pickett and Sam and Dave. Performances of soul music were similar to the preaching style and gospel singing heard in African American folk-styled churches. The singing was improvisatory and intensified the performance by repeating words and phrases, and punctuating with grunts, shouts, and moans. Timbres alternated between lyrical and percussive, shifted from high to low pitches, and incorporated bends, slides, melisma, and passing tones in the melody. Instrumentalists imitated these vocal sounds, using the technological devices of the day such as guitar wah-wah pedals and keyboard synthesizers to make their instruments “talk.”

Soul music performers promoted the ideology of Black Power through their lyrics, which advocated national Black unity, activism, and self-pride. Curtis Mayfield, songwriter and lead singer of the Impressions, set the stage with <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:298,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Keep on Pushing&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1442919644&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Keep On Pushing&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Impressions&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Keep On Pushing&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1963-10-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music124\/v4\/1d\/1b\/f7\/1d1bf72a-f081-d768-8390-a3731302a32c\/00602557467956.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:3000,&quot;height&quot;:3000,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;341814&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;fbe829&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;d2a975&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;d3be25&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;b28c62&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/18\/d4\/ba\/18d4ba91-d765-e363-a23e-0ba2538cfa86\/mzaf_5421898072126070615.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Keep on Pushing”</a> (1964), “People Get Ready” (1964), “We’re a Winner” (1967), and “This is My Country” (1968). These themes also resonate in the recordings of Sam &amp; Dave’s “Soul Man” (1967) and the Staple Singers’ “You’ve Got to Earn It” and “Respect Yourself” (1971). James Brown stressed the need for racial pride in “Say It Loud—I’m Black and I’m Proud, Pt. 1” (1968) and he addressed social and political issues in “I Don’t Want Nobody To Give Me Nothing (Open Up The Door, I’ll Get It Myself)” (1969) and “Get Up, Get Into It, Get Involved” (1970). By the end of the turbulent 1960s, Motown artists began to address a range of social issues as heard in the Temptations’ “Cloud Nine” (1968) and “Ball of Confusion (That’s What the World Is Today)” (1970), Gladys Knight &amp; The Pips’ “Friendship Train” (1969), Edwin Starr’s “War” (1970), and Stevie Wonder’s “Living for the City” (1973) and <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:299,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Higher Ground&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1440807404&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Higher Ground&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Stevie Wonder&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Innervisions&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1973-08-03&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is1-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music115\/v4\/ff\/c2\/5f\/ffc25f04-cb3b-b56e-dd28-8b77ae63e613\/00602537070824.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1431,&quot;height&quot;:1431,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;cb933e&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;050403&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;050504&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;2c210f&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;2d2110&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/3d\/a2\/b8\/3da2b8f9-e389-563b-e349-cf43f43ec750\/mzaf_13481458924750549834.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Higher Ground”</a> (1973).Other prevalent themes in the lyrics of soul focused on unity and respect, not only among African Americans as a community but in personal relationships as well. Otis Redding spoke of committed personal relationships in “I’ve Been Loving You Too Long” (1965), “Respect” (1965), and <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:300,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Try a Little Tenderness&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;997088842&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Try a Little Tenderness&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Otis Redding&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The Very Best of Otis Redding&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1966-10-15&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is1-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music125\/v4\/92\/3e\/f6\/923ef641-d13b-c0ac-1271-332f74b17956\/603497887217.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:2400,&quot;height&quot;:2400,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;4fb2f4&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;3e9de9&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;3f8ec3&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;317eba&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview122\/v4\/d0\/93\/2e\/d0932e89-ed44-171c-19af-165162543c12\/mzaf_17667679326630100305.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Try a Little Tenderness”</a> (1966), as did Sam and Dave in “You Don’t Know Like I Know” (1965) and “When Something Is Wrong With My Baby” (1966), and Al Green in “Let’s Stay Together” (1971) and “I’m Still In Love With You” (1972). Joe Tex’s “A Sweet Woman Like You” (1965), Percy Sledge’s “When a Man Loves a Women” (1966), and Wilson Pickett’s “I Found a Love” (1967) acknowledged the importance of women in their lives. Aretha Franklin (known as the “Queen of Soul”) echoed related themes from the opposite perspective in “I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You)” (1967), “Do Right Woman—Do Right Man” (1967), and “I Can’t See Myself Leaving You” (1968), and Gladys Knight &amp; The Pips in “If I Were Your Woman” (1970).

Soul music remained a major form of Black popular expression through the mid-1970s. The changes envisioned by African Americans, especially those living in the inner city, came at a much slower rate than anticipated. Musicians continued to speak on behalf of the community: The Isley Brothers expounded on the need for <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/24/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:301,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Freedom&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;198021832&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Freedom&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Isley Brothers&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The Essential Isley Brothers&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1970-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music125\/v4\/1e\/34\/dd\/1e34ddc4-b87d-d9f9-ebbd-aa822a29cc79\/mzi.nqjgihhk.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:600,&quot;height&quot;:600,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;d7d3d0&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;0a0b0a&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;242321&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;333331&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;484644&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/c1\/5f\/66\/c15f6645-e97f-87ca-5ce1-74bce7ce4d8b\/mzaf_2794225123669043066.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“Freedom”</a> (1970) and the Chi-Lites reminded society that the critical mass of African Americans had not yet been empowered in “(For God’s Sake) Give More Power to the People” (1971). The O’Jays cautioned about “Backstabbers” (1972) and Marvin Gaye spoke of inner-city social problems in “What’s Going On” (1971) and “Inner City Blues” (1971), as did the O’Jays’ “Give the People What They Want” (1975). By the mid-1970s, the defining sound of soul had largely disappeared from the popular music landscape, replaced by funk and disco, and later, rap/hip-hop.

Contemporary Gospel

Soul Jazz

Smooth Jazz

Punk & Alt-Rock

Traditional Gospel

Gospel Group

Gospel Choir

Respect

Funk

Neo Soul

New Jack Swing

Electric Guitar

Electric Piano/Synthesizer

Meter

Improvisation

Vocal Sounds

Timbre

Call and Response

Melody

Phrasing

Repetition

Slide

Ray Charles

Sam Cooke

James Brown

Aretha Franklin

Otis Redding

Sam & Dave

The Isley Brothers

Marvin Gaye

Stevie Wonder

Keep On Pushing

Keep on Pushing

Higher Ground

Try a Little Tenderness

Freedom

Economics/Poverty

Civil Rights

Community

Black Power/Pride

Political Issues/Activism

Arranger/Producer

The term “disco,” the abbreviation of the French word discothèque, first became associated with European up-scale dance venues that featured primarily recorded Black music, especially jazz. In the US and pioneered by mobile disc jockeys (DJs), it emerged as a musical genre in underground dance venues such as house and loft parties, bathhouses in New York City frequented by African Americans, Latinos and gays where DJs played soul, funk, and Latin American music. Soon, disco evolved into a distinct music style defined by a core set of features, including the “disco beat,” created by the studio musicians of Philadelphia International Records (known as the “Philly Sound”). In the mainstream, disco became associated with a cultural movement of music, dance, fashion, and style.

Singer of several Paradise Garage hits mixed by Levan

The concept for public, nighttime dance parties with entertainment provided by a disc jockey using a single turntable began in the European war time musical culture in the late 1930s and 1940s in Germany and France. The performance space was called a discotheque in France, and over time, disco became the recognized term to refer to the dance club as well as the genre of music.By 1964, dance music culture made its way to England at a club called Mecca Locarno where white DJ Jimmy Savile requested two turntables set up side-by-side on the stage instead of the initial set-up of one turntable hidden away up in the light box out of sight from the dancers. In these early years, the European discotheque began to refer specifically to a smaller party and dance space as opposed to the larger dancehalls built to hold thousands. In 1965 at a club called Arthur in New York City, Terry Noel brought seamless mixing of two records to the disco, rather than the earlier format of one record played immediately after the end of the previous record with no silence in between while the DJ cues up the next song.In the early 1970s, New York City’s emerging disco culture was coming up as a gay club culture, with fans, musicians, and dancers who were primarily African American and Latina/Latino. The DJ became a new kind of star, controlling the sound and creating the atmosphere by manipulating the lights from the DJ booth. Their names often would be well known to dancers such as the most influential DJ Larry Levan. Resided at the Paradise Garage, Levan kept the dancers on the dance floor playing a wide-ranging repertoire. By the mid-1970s, a distinctive disco sound dominated the scene. Observed by Joe Radcliffe, Billboard’s (music trade magazine) dance editor during the emergence of disco, “in 1974–1975, the disco music scene was literally controlled by a handful of Black artists affiliated with a small group of specialized record labels led by Motown and Philadelphia International Records” (also known as the Philly Sound). Among the most influential disco songs are the recordings of MFSB—an acronym for “Mother Father Sister Brother”—produced by Philadelphia International Records.By the mid-1970s, the role of the producer in disco music often eclipsed that of studio singers and musicians. Producers such as Giorgio Moroder, who worked with disco superstar Donna Summer, and Nile Rodgers, founder of the super group Chic, became legends in their own right. Disco crossed over from primarily Black and gay audiences into the mainstream following the release of Saturday Night Fever (1978), a popular disco film featuring a soundtrack by the Australian bother trio the Bee Gees. Many rock and popular artists began including disco-influenced material in their repertoires.By the early 1980s, Disco began to fade in popularity due to its growing commercial sound and lack of originality, but also as a result of rising racism and homophobia directed at disco music and club culture. In 1979, Chicago radio disc jockey, Steve Dahl, hosted Disco Demolition Night in Comiskey Baseball Park. After the first game in the scheduled double-header, Dahl detonated a large pile of thousands of pieces of vinyl. The records were mostly those of disco artists, but also included funk, soul, rhythm &amp; blues, and rock records by artists of color. This event was terrorizing on a large social and cultural scale, resulting in the movement of club culture toward a safer underground context. Disco music, the concept of the disco club, and the role of the disco DJ influenced DJ culture from hip-hop to house and techno, and electronic music in general.

Studio Drummer, Philadelphia Records

Club DJ

A concept essential to disco is the extended song length beyond the standard three-minute length, often remixing and editing pop song formats into a six to eight-minute, or even longer piece of music to inspire all night dancing, following the introduction of the 12-inch single.Disco is distinguished from other popular music styles by its beat and instrumental sound, pioneered by Philadelphia International Records. The basic disco beat is a four-to-the-bar bass drum pattern which is subdivided by beats on the high-hat cymbal (and variations on this pattern). Examples are: MFSB’s “T.S.O.P” and “Love Is the Message” (1973), Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes’ “Bad Luck” (1974), and Lou Rawls’ “You’ll Never Find a Love Like Mine” (1976). <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:238,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;T.S.O.P.&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;278929947&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;T.S.O.P. (The Sound of Philadelphia) [feat. The Three Degrees]&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;MFSB&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Love Is the Message&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1973-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is2-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music115\/v4\/fb\/16\/2b\/fb162bd3-1487-499c-a052-e2929de18d42\/888880306159.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:3000,&quot;height&quot;:3000,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;1d1e19&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;fefcf0&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;d97c70&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;d1cfc5&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;b3695f&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview122\/v4\/f3\/60\/97\/f3609756-3109-b474-4ed4-451b36246ec5\/mzaf_5486049582571547756.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“T.S.O.P.”</a> became the theme song for the television dance show Soul Train.The most popular disco style spotlights lush string arrangements over an unwavering disco beat. Funk-rooted disco also features strings, but the beat combines funk and disco patterns (Chic’s “Le Freak” from 1978). Other disco styles reflect the musical influences of European and Latin popular traditions (McCoy’s <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:302,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Hustle&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1605183240&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;The Hustle - Original Mix&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Van McCoy&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Disco Baby&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1975-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music122\/v4\/a1\/62\/17\/a16217f1-43ed-ac0c-1c5e-2114d0604067\/051617900610.png\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1600,&quot;height&quot;:1600,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;f1945d&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;df7b4e&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;c0764a&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;b2623f&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview126\/v4\/8b\/73\/57\/8b73574d-5122-70ca-c2a2-96edcf1923b5\/mzaf_5136415590270521200.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“The Hustle”</a>). Disco initially was performed by studio musicians, but later productions used technology in conjunction with them.

Later disco producers and performers co-opted Philly-style arrangements as a model for new disco songs such as Gloria Gaynor’s “Never Can Say Goodbye” (1974) and <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/25/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:303,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;I Will Survive&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1443818368&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;I Will Survive&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Gloria Gaynor&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;20th Century Masters - The Millennium Collection: The Best of Gloria Gaynor&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1978-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is1-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music128\/v4\/33\/12\/df\/3312dfbf-2cd2-e149-1ccb-9688e2a60980\/00731454913720.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1431,&quot;height&quot;:1419,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;ffffff&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;010102&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;32240d&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;343435&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;5b4f3e&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/97\/55\/dd\/9755dd8f-a332-4486-4946-c049059f0edf\/mzaf_18336667409268238306.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“I Will Survive”</a> (1978), and Salsoul Orchestra’s “Tangerine” (1976). Other disco styles reflect the musical influences of European and Latin popular traditions as well as funk. The Ritchie Family’s “Brazil” (1975) and <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/25/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:304,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Best Disco in Town&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;391645268&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;The Best Disco In Town&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Ritchie Family&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Arabian Nights - EP&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1976-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is3-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music114\/v4\/e8\/65\/21\/e865215d-84ea-708b-0253-d4eca0175c7b\/mzi.bgmbatyv.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1440,&quot;height&quot;:1440,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;ecedf0&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;e8916a&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;bdbec0&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;b97455&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/77\/06\/e6\/7706e679-fd97-a8af-5d34-adb1d3db25d7\/mzaf_845445909044054606.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“The Best Disco in Town”</a> (1976), Donna Summer’s <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/25/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:305,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Love to Love You Baby&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1423290771&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Love To Love You Baby&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Donna Summer&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Love To Love You Baby&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1975-08-27&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is2-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music118\/v4\/16\/56\/89\/16568924-8f4a-0893-e282-f57fa413c44a\/00602567831310.rgb.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;181713&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;efe9f1&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;e9c9c6&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;c4bfc4&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;bfa6a2&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/0c\/7d\/f4\/0c7df44f-48c4-dfec-c5b0-f52e45ffa147\/mzaf_12652561749622879754.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“Love to Love You Baby”</a> (1975), the Trammps’ “That’s Where the Happy People Go” (1976), and the Village People’s “San Francisco” (1977) and “Macho Man” (1978) typify the Euro-disco style. Latin rhythms and percussive instruments were incorporated by Carol Douglas <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/25/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:306,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Doctor\u2019s Orders&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;289566678&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Doctor&#039;s Orders&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Carol Douglas&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The Carol Douglas Album&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1975-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is2-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music123\/v4\/37\/75\/18\/37751897-7cce-cdbd-d043-c107d36f471a\/dj.zsopsabk.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1440,&quot;height&quot;:1440,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;2e1f18&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;fefefe&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;f60c2f&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;d4d1d0&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;ce102b&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/8c\/70\/e6\/8c70e66c-cc40-890f-9c2f-baac36e10185\/mzaf_14093525257337426562.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“Doctor’s Orders”</a> (1974). Funk-based disco included B.T. Express’s “Express” (1974), the German group Silver Convention’s “<a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/25/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:505,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Fly Robin Fly&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;394743930&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Fly Robin Fly&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Silver Convention&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Fly Robin Fly&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1975-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music124\/v4\/80\/a1\/7f\/80a17f6e-af9f-fa2a-ea49-30ced7f6ec66\/mzi.kifpsuud.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:620,&quot;height&quot;:620,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;160f00&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;efda87&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;d3b15f&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;c3b16c&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;ad904c&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/aa\/64\/d9\/aa64d91b-dc40-c1ce-c8e9-6f1fa612cde6\/mzaf_5652833384272995304.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">Fly Robin Fly</a>” (1975), Taste of Honey’s <a href="https://admin.cms.timeline.carnegiehall.org/more/genres/25/" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:307,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Boogie Oogie Oogie&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;716070281&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Boogie Oogie Oogie&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;A Taste of Honey&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Classic Masters: A Taste of Honey&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;2002-01-29&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music124\/v4\/8c\/9e\/54\/8c9e5425-1185-1415-25a8-ab0e1c3cd71e\/00724353725853.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1500,&quot;height&quot;:1500,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;0c111e&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;fefeff&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;c9bcb5&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;cdced1&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;a39a97&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/70\/d2\/b0\/70d2b04c-f8c7-760d-4c3e-a184438cd368\/mzaf_12770012139207724139.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">“Boogie Oogie Oogie”</a> (1978), and Chic’s “Good Times” (1979).

Like most popular music of its era, disco songs focused on love and relationships, but many disco songs focused on dancing and the act of partying itself.

Rap/Hip-Hop

T.S.O.P. (The Sound of Philadelphia) [feat. The Three Degrees]

T.S.O.P.

House

Detroit Techno

Horn

Other Percussion

Groove

Beat

MFSB

Donna Summer

Chic

The Village People

KC and the Sunshine Band

Gloria Gaynor

The Ritchie Family

Carol Douglas

The Hustle - Original Mix

The Hustle

I Will Survive

The Best Disco In Town

The Best Disco in Town

Love To Love You Baby

Love to Love You Baby

Doctor's Orders

Doctor’s Orders

Boogie Oogie Oogie

LGBTQ

Cultural Influences

Journalist and scholar of go-go music

Go-go music began as a subgenre extension of funk music that originated in Washington, DC, in the early 1970s. The music gets its name from its ability to keep people “going and going” on the dance floor. The go-go beat is known as the “pocket” and the rest of the music is built around this groove. Much like the funk music that preceded it, go-go music emphasizes rhythm and dancing. Go-Go music takes this further by being largely characterized and known for live performances that involve audience participation. This emphasis on performance has created a recording industry based largely on live recordings rather than commercially produced songs, the aesthetics of which make go-go music challenging to market to a wide audience.

The creation of go-go music is most often attributed to the “Godfather of Go-Go,” Chuck Brown. A guitarist, singer, and bandleader originally from Gaston, North Carolina, Brown and his band the Soul Searchers popularized the Latin infused funk rhythms that continued in between songs during live performance. They kept the people going on the dance floor for the duration of their live sets, which is how the genre earned its name. While Chuck Brown and the Soul Searchers popularized this style of performance, The Young Senators, another band from Washington, DC, is credited with pioneering the prototype for the go-go style in the late 1960s with the 1971 release, <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:458,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Jungle&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1123271009&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Jungle&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;The Young Senators&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Jungle b\/w That&#039;s the Way It Is - Single&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;2016-06-23&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is3-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music18\/v4\/55\/6a\/c9\/556ac928-6ae8-3019-e25c-ccf87af3903e\/cover.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1400,&quot;height&quot;:1400,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;fefefc&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;020c2d&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;0e1133&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;343c56&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;3e405b&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/01\/64\/c5\/0164c5a4-50fc-ac7c-d291-5a132e4825f3\/mzaf_3617844565552942653.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Jungle,”</a> on their own label, Innovation. In addition to the Soul Searchers and The Young Senators, bands such as Ayre Rayde, Trouble Funk, and Rare Essence rounded out and perfected this model of performance. During go-go music’s ascendence in the 1970s, Washington, DC, was known as the “Chocolate City,” a nickname coined and immortalized by George Clinton and Parliament Funkadelic in their 1975 album of the same name. The album is a tribute to Black culture and political power in DC, where “we didn’t get our 40 acres and a mule, but we did get you, CC.” Washington, DC, with its Black mayors, majority Black city council, and 70% Black population, was a vision of Black success in the United States, and go-go became the soundtrack of the city.The generation of go-go music that began with Chuck Brown is now known as old school, characterized by its funk grooves and percussive horn sections. Popular old school go-go songs include <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:248,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Bustin\u2019 Loose&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;175107982&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Bustin&#039; Loose&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Chuck Brown &amp; The Soul Searchers&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Bustin&#039; Loose&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1979-01-01&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is1-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music114\/v4\/ac\/44\/54\/ac445460-1d0c-cecb-c2f0-5ccb886c7a6b\/mzi.eqyxvvbd.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1436,&quot;height&quot;:1401,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;1c171b&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;e8b97e&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;ecb566&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;bf986a&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;c29557&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/0d\/de\/b6\/0ddeb646-26a4-e3bf-4095-59156a2c790c\/mzaf_6532566649907350815.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Bustin’&nbsp;Loose”</a> (1978) by Chuck Brown and the Soul Searchers, “Pump Me Up” (1982) by Trouble Funk, and “Da Butt” (1988) by EU (Experience Unlimited). Old school bands did&nbsp;achieve moderate amounts of regional and national success in the 1980s and ’90s: <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:381,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Da\u2019 Butt&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;204505402&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Da Butt&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;E.U.&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Put Your Hands Up! - The Tribute Concert to Chuck Brown&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;2002-08-20&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is1-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music\/a6\/c9\/ad\/mzi.vcnyncgo.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1425,&quot;height&quot;:1416,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;32292c&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;fcfcfc&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;faf29f&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;d4d2d2&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;d2ca88&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/44\/c5\/81\/44c58171-1cdc-0cc7-56b8-3064c188d7f4\/mzaf_17079788276214782447.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Da Butt”</a> was featured in Spike Lee’s film School Daze and was subsequently nominated for a Grammy, Trouble Funk was signed to&nbsp;Sugarhill&nbsp;records with Sylvia Robinson, and Junkyard Band was signed to Def Jam with Rick Rubin.&nbsp;&nbsp;In the 1990s, go-go was further influenced by the rise of hip-hop and&nbsp;gangsta&nbsp;rap, with bands such as Backyard Band and Northeast Groovers developing a harder sound than their predecessors. Sometimes called “crank,” this style of go-go utilizes the pocket as well as a faster, more aggressive version known as the socket. Backyard Band, led by lead talker Big G, began their career playing on trashcans, emulating their idols, the Junkyard Band, who also started off on “junk.” Over the past 25 years, Backyard’s sound has developed into one of the most popular on the go-go scene today. Lead talker Big G’s famous bass growl combined with singer&nbsp;Weensey’s&nbsp;distinctive tenor has catapulted the band into national recognition, collaborations with rapper Wale, and a trip to perform in Ghana in 2018. Some of the most well-known crank songs come from Backyard Band, with their hits “Pretty Girls” and “Unibomber.” In addition to Backyard and Northeast Groovers, some of the more senior go-go bands developed a more crank based sound in the 1990s, such as Rare Essence in their hit song <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:382,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Overnight Scenario&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;447831799&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Overnight Scenario&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Rare Essence&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Classic Cuts Vol. 1&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1995-12-12&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music\/1b\/3d\/6c\/mzi.ouuggwkf.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1400,&quot;height&quot;:1400,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;af0f09&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;ffffff&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;dfdfdf&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;efcfcd&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;d5b5b4&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/61\/ab\/b5\/61abb540-7097-67ce-95bc-e341f2d67590\/mzaf_5582284110887949716.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Overnight Scenario.”</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;In the 2000s, “grown and sexy” bands began to utilize the pocket beat to transform R&amp;B for a DMV (DC, Maryland, and Virginia) audience. Bands like Suttle Squad,&nbsp;Vybe&nbsp;Band, and&nbsp;Be’la&nbsp;Dona (the latter of which is one of the only all women bands in the scene) feature the same instrumentation and pocket beat as old school for the most part (usually less horns) but are more contemporary than old school go-go. These bands feature less original music and more covers of popular R&amp;B, hip-hop, and pop songs. Although covers are plentiful in grown and sexy, some bands do record original music, such as&nbsp;Be’la&nbsp;Dona’s 2021 single <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:386,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Fiyahh&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1586257395&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Fiyahh&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Be&#039;la Dona&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Fiyahh - Single&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;2021-09-16&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is4-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music115\/v4\/49\/a4\/f9\/49a4f95e-a22e-bd0e-e2aa-2074c234b689\/artwork.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:3000,&quot;height&quot;:3000,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;050211&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;f4e1fd&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;e0c7fa&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;c4b4ce&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;b4a0cc&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/3d\/88\/4d\/3d884db5-1b9c-83a9-39ad-86631efc2a54\/mzaf_7477046142202774260.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Fiyahh.”</a> Go-go musicians across the scene&nbsp;have the ability to&nbsp;completely transform a song from the radio into something that makes you certain that they were the ones who originally wrote it. Rare Essence, for example, covered Ashlee Simpson’s “Pieces of Me” in 2004 and many who grew up in that era still don’t know the original song.&nbsp;&nbsp;Go-go’s youngest fans have created “bounce beat,” a newer evolution of go-go established in 2003. Bounce beat is a more percussive, energetic style of music than its predecessors, utilizing a different rhythmic innovation called the “bounce beat” (which has variations of its own, the most popular of which is called the slow bounce). With a slightly different instrumentation than the pocket beat, rototoms rather than congas are highly important to the bounce beat&nbsp;sound, and&nbsp;drive the music along with the&nbsp;drum set. The melodic content of bounce beat is provided primarily by keyboards and vocalists, rather than a horn section or even guitar. The heavily percussive bounce beat is popular among the DMV’s youth, and often found at “All Ages” go-go’s, which allow people under 21 to attend. The most popular bounce beat bands, sometimes called “Alphabet Bands,” typically consist of three letter acronyms, such as AJA (All Jokes Aside) or CCB (Critical Condition Band). The origins of bounce beat are debated but ultimately conceded to TCB, or Total Control Band, particularly their lead mic Reggie “Polo” Burwell. Celebration of bounce beat’s origins has become almost synonymous with a memorialization of Polo, who passed away in 2013. Popular bounce beat songs include Reaction Band’s <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:389,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Clappin Song&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1516599529&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Clappin Song&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Reaction Band&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Greatest Hits&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;2020-06-03&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music113\/v4\/0f\/dc\/9f\/0fdc9fd6-7efd-e276-ee91-bf47d696ae4d\/859739827859_cover.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1600,&quot;height&quot;:1600,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;ffffff&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;000000&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;1a1a1a&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;333333&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;484848&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview115\/v4\/4c\/49\/c2\/4c49c261-948a-dcde-5098-320b8f2bd1aa\/mzaf_2101479455158084403.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Clappin&nbsp;Song”</a> as well as TCB’s <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:388,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Lay Ya Head&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;1523756915&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Lay Ya Head&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;TCB Bounce Beat Kings&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;The Lost Bounce Tapes Vol #1&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;2020-07-15&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is2-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music114\/v4\/85\/94\/5e\/85945eee-3eb9-d251-da68-74979aa4a0bc\/artwork.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:3000,&quot;height&quot;:3000,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;fff000&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;070406&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;1f1a01&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;383305&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;4c4501&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/36\/83\/a4\/3683a49a-d5b5-2417-e4a8-440d64c5d392\/mzaf_10520801540757422175.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Lay&nbsp;Ya&nbsp;Head.”</a>&nbsp;In addition to bounce beat, the younger generations of go-go have popularized gospel go-go, which operates somewhat outside of the traditional landscape of nightclubs and parties that secular go-go works within. Gospel go-go is defined by its Christian messages, and musically favors the same bottom heavy timbral elements as the rest of the go-go music scene, with bass and percussion dominating the soundscape.&nbsp;As Washington, DC, has gentrified, go-go music has&nbsp;adjusted&nbsp;as well. Due to rising rents, neighborhood transformations, and displacement, many shows are now taking place in the suburbs of Maryland and Virginia rather than the city proper. However, in 2019, the #DontMuteDC Movement began, which took the city by storm and raised awareness about connections between gentrification and Black cultural erasure. The music was reflective of the movement, with many musicians adding “Don’t Mute DC!” chants to their songs or performing at Don’t Mute DC Rallies.&nbsp;

The instrumentation of go-go bands differs from band to band, but there is a general unifying structure across the scene. Bands typically consist of a drum set, two sets of congas (typically two small, two large), auxiliary percussion (tambourine, cowbell, etc.), at least one keyboard, an electric bass, a lead guitar, and a few vocalists. Go-go bands always include a lead talker or lead mic, whose function is to lead the band and interact with the audience, which is one of the most important facets of creating this inclusive community. The singers and lead mic are on the frontline of the band, with percussionists and guitarists making up the backline. The most important component in the go-go sound is the beat, commonly referred to as “the pocket.” Kip Lornell and Charles Stephenson Jr. describe the music’s beat as, “characterized by a syncopated, dotted rhythm that consists of a series of quarter and eighth notes (quarter, eighth, quarter, (space/held briefly), quarter, eighth, quarter)… which is underscored most dramatically by the bass drum and snare drum, and the hi-hat… [and] is ornamented by the other percussion instruments, especially by the conga drums, timbales, and hand-held cowbell.”&nbsp;This pocket beat is featured throughout go-go music, perfected by bands such as EU and Junkyard. Although the pocket remains a crucial element of go-go music and culture, bands have shifted and evolved the beat over the years, resulting in forms such as the socket, bounce, and slow bounce.&nbsp;&nbsp;Audience appeal has always driven go-go music and is one of the reasons why go-go has remained primarily a live music genre rather than studio recorded. Go-go functions best with an enthusiastic audience, one that knows what to expect and how to participate. For example, call and response is central to go-go, with lead talkers cycling through a well-worn repository of chants that are adjustable based on audience. Many are place based, featuring a version of “Is [neighborhood] in the house?” Some chants are song specific, such as the Junkyard Band’s 1986 hit song <a href="" data-song-json="{&quot;id&quot;:384,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Sardines&quot;,&quot;apple_music_song_id&quot;:&quot;447774812&quot;,&quot;song_file&quot;:null,&quot;apple_music_attributes&quot;:{&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sardines&quot;,&quot;artist_name&quot;:&quot;Junkyard Band&quot;,&quot;album_name&quot;:&quot;Reunion - Live At Martin&#039;s Crosswinds Ballroom&quot;,&quot;release_date&quot;:&quot;1996-03-25&quot;,&quot;artwork&quot;:{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/is5-ssl.mzstatic.com\/image\/thumb\/Music\/ac\/16\/d3\/mzi.pvjkgnci.jpg\/{w}x{h}bb.jpg&quot;,&quot;width&quot;:1400,&quot;height&quot;:1400,&quot;bgColor&quot;:&quot;ffffff&quot;,&quot;textColor1&quot;:&quot;050e24&quot;,&quot;textColor2&quot;:&quot;0e172e&quot;,&quot;textColor3&quot;:&quot;373e50&quot;,&quot;textColor4&quot;:&quot;3e4558&quot;},&quot;preview_song_url&quot;:&quot;https:\/\/audio-ssl.itunes.apple.com\/itunes-assets\/AudioPreview125\/v4\/5b\/c5\/86\/5bc586b8-f249-03f8-243b-d546974b6ac2\/mzaf_1452360169196752472.plus.aac.p.m4a&quot;},&quot;video_file&quot;:null}" rel="noopener noreferrer">“Sardines.”</a> The chorus of “Sardines” is both antiphony and meal, with the lead talker calling “Sardines!” and waiting for the audience to respond with “Hey, and pork and beans!” Other modes of participation include calling out one’s neighborhood, performing a specific dance or gesture, or simply singing and dancing along to the music.

Go-go music lyrics vary from party to political. Many go-go songs are covers of popular R&amp;B, pop, and rock songs, often remixed with lyrics to fit the DC region. Original songs feature repetition, chants, and the like. Political songs include songs such as Junkyard Band’s “The Word,” which takes on President Ronald Reagan’s increases in military spending: “Reagan gave the Pentagon the student loan money, the trench is getting deeper and it’s not too funny, Reagan gave the Pentagon all our money!” In addition to national politics, go-go artists have also focused in on local issues. Little Benny’s “The Cat in the Hat” discusses the dangers of drug addiction, and an all-star lineup of go-go artists including Chuck Brown, Rare Essence, Little Benny, EU, and DC Scorpio came together in 1988 to address gun violence for “DC Don’t Stand for Dodge City.” Furthermore, some go-go songs are spiritual, featuring original lyrics that focus on Christian messages or covers of well-known gospel songs such as Walter Hawkins’s “Oh Happy Day.”